101 HISTORY TIMELINE

http://www.fsmitha.com/h1/index2.html

000 BCE to 500 CE

home | before 1000 BCE | 6th-15th centuries

King David's Empire and the Israel-Judah separation – David and rebellion, Solomon, an empire breaks up

Rise and Fall of the Assyrian Empire – empire through Israel and Judah to Egypt and beyond and falls by 605 BCE

Captives put together the Hebrew Bible – the first five books and its sources.

The Persian Empire and Judaism – Cyrus Conquers and frees Hebrew captives; Jewish priesthood and ideology

Religion, Myth and the Ancient Greeks – Homer, Hesiod, resurrection, Olympics, war

Greeks, Democracy and Slavery , 650-501 BCE – Athens, Sparta, the culture of slavery

The Greeks at War, 494 to 371 BCE – the Greco-Persian and Peloponnesian Wars

Alexander the Great – Philip II, Alexander conquers from Egypt to Afghanistan

Hellenistic Civilization – empire, dissintegration, Jews and failed revolutions

Hellenism and Jews – Septuagint, Maccabees, loss of independence, Essenes, John the Baptist

India, Empire and Chaos – Hinduism, Buddhism, rise and fall of the Maurya and Gupta empires

Dynastic Rule and the Chinese – monarchy and rebellion, Zhou to Liu-Song dynasties

Rome Staggers to Empire – from early republic to hegemonic power

The Roman Republic's Civil Wars and End – Tiberius Graccus the younger to Octavian

Roman Emperors, Prosperity and Decline – Augustus Caesar to Constantine the Great

Jewish Revolts and Christian Identities – Jews and Christians divide. Christian hierarchy

Christianity becomes Dominant – Constantine, pagans, Eusebius, Julian the Apostate

The Roman Empire Disintegrates – Christian emperors fail, Rome burns, and the empire is overrun

Additional Church Ideology – Augustine overthrows Eusebius, bishoprics and rival views

Religion, Politics and Persia – more rise and fall empires; Zoroastrians, Manichees and Christians

Africa, Iron and Empire – the Nubians, iron, Askum, Meroe, the Bantu

The Ancient Japanese – from the legend of Jimmu to the rise of the Yamato dynasty

Korea: Three Kingdoms – Confucianism, animism and wars fought under the banner of Buddhism

North Americans – Woodland, Adena and Hopewell cultures, the plains and ancient southwest

MesoAmerica – the Olmecs, Teotihuacán, and the Maya

Societies in South America – Rise and fall of Chavin culture. Moche, Nazca, chiefdom and other societies.

Southeast Asia and Oceania – migrations.

Struggle with Ideas

Greek philosophy before Socratics – From Thales to Protagoras, Hippocrates and Protagoras

Socrates, Plato and Aristotle – gods of Homer, nature of idea, categories and science

Cynics, Skeptics, Stoics and Epicureans – Antithenes, Diogenes, Pyrrho, Arcesilaus, Zeno of Citium, Epicurus

Roman Contemplations – myths, religious authority, concrete, Epicureans, Cicero, Senaca, Lucian, Galen, Plotinus

Religion and Philosophy in China – conqurors, human sacrifice, Confucius, Mozi, Buddhism, Taoism, I-ching

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100 -2 W Honorius as Emperor of the West

Honorius, Arcadius and the Visigoths

Honorius (An 1880 painting by Jean-Paul Laurens.)

The guidance of God included rule by Theodosius' two sons: an eleven year-old, Honorius, who inherited the position of emperor in the west, and Arcadius, eighteen, who inherited rule in the eastern half of the empire. Honorius was moronic and would eventually spend much of his time raising chickens. Arcadius was pious and gentle, but he was also incompetent and ill-tempered. Theodosius left as regent for Honorius his talented and energetic aide and military commander-in-chief, Stilicho, who was half-Roman and half-Vandal (German) and married to Theodosius' favorite niece. Stilicho claimed that Theodosius left him in charge of both sons, but in the east a powerful aide and authority in Constantinople, Flavius Rufinus, claimed responsibility for the eighteen year-old, Arcadius.

The empire's Visigoths distrusted Honorius, Arcadius and their advisors. The leader of the Visigoths, Alaric, had bargained for pensions and for a post in the high command of the Roman army, and he had become disappointed over promises made by Theodosius that had not been fulfilled. The Visigoths wished to better themselves economically, and before Theodosius had been dead one year, Alaric and the Visigoths started marching toward Constantinople, devastating territory along the way. Rufinus, in Constantinople, requested help from Stilicho. Stilicho sent troops to Constantinople, and there members of his army murdered Rufinus. So hated had Rufinus been by the common people of Constantinople that upon hearing of his death they came running from every quarter of the city to trample upon his corpse. Someone put the head of Rufinus on the end of a lance, and the crowd followed it in a great parade through the city.

Sensing the weakness of the new rulers and taking advantage of the disunity between the western and eastern halves of the empire, the Visigoths marched into Greece where they sacked Corinth, Argos and Sparta. Athens was spared by paying the Visigoths a ransom. In 397, Stilicho led troops against the Visigoths and drove them north into Illyricum, which the Visigoths also plundered. There the Visigoths settled with permission from the eastern emperor, Arcadius. And Arcadius made the leader of the Visigoths, Alaric, prefect of the province.

100 -2 W 'Theodosius the Great' Flavius Theodosius (AD 347 - AD 395)

http://www.roman-empire.net/collapse/collapse.html


'Theodosius the Great'
Flavius Theodosius
(AD 347 - AD 395)

Theodosius was born in Cauca in the Spanish province of Tarraconensis in AD 347.
His father was Theodosius the elder, who became 'Master of Horse' under Valentinian.
Theodosius himself also served in the army, and as a member of his father's staff when fighting in Britain in AD 368, and thereafter against the Alemanni.
In about AD 373 he became governor of Upper Moesia and oversaw hostilities against the Sarmatians.

Though in AD 375 his father was convicted of treason and put to death, with Theodosius went into exile in Spain.

But after the disastrous battle of Hadrianopolis, which saw the eastern emperor Valen and his army slaughtered by teh Visigoths in AD 378, emperor Gratian recalled Theodosius from exile in order to deal with the disastrous circumstances in the east.

Theodosius achieved remarkable success at dealing with what was a desperate situation along the Danube. As a reward for his troubles, Gratian elevated Theodosius to the rank of Augustus of the east on 19 January AD 379.

In the immediate first years of his reign, Theodosius battled on against the Visigoth forces and the barbarian settlers streaming across the Danube. But the he soon realized the task was an impossible one and in AD 382 he agreed a treaty with them, making allies within the imperial borders.
The treaty allowed the Visigoths to live in Thrace on their own land, with their own laws and their own chiefs. Though, as part of the empire, they would be required to provide soldiers to the empire.
Also part of the treaty was the fact that Theodosius was required to make annual payments to the chieftains of these Visigothic tribes, to pay for troops they continued to command on his behalf.
The barbarian tribes included in this treaty were by no way exclusively Visigothic. Other Germans and even some Huns were part of this agreement.
In a time of a desperate shortage of manpower in the army, the barbarians provided Theodosius with a ready source of fierce and skilled fighters, which not only enlarged his force, but should give him a decisive edge in his struggles with western usurpers to the Roman throne.

Though this enlarged army consumed enormous amounts of money. Theodosius showed even greater determination than Valentinian to increase the amounts he could obtain by taxation.
He was determined that no one should own any property without having to pay tax for it. The laws which were passed to enforce this, were so stringent that they led to widespread oppression.

Theodosius' relationship with his fellow emperor Gratian in the west was a strained one, largely on religious grounds, but the fact that Theodosius' father had been executed under Gratian will surely not have made for friendly relations.
But when Magnus Maximus usurped the western throne in AD 383, Theodosius only reluctantly granted him recognition. Largely this recognition was only due to worries about Maximus' ambitions against Gratian's young co-Augustus Valentinian II in Italy.
By acknowledging Maximus, Theodosius managed to persuade the usurper to recognize Valentinian II.

Meanwhile, Theodosius promoted his own son Arcadius to co-Augustus of the east in AD 383.

When in AD 387 Maximus invaded Italy in order to dispose of Valentinian II, Theodosius led an army against him. The eastern emperor's German and Hun troops helped him to defeat Maximus at Siscia and then at Poetovio. Maximus was beheaded in Aquileia (AD 387).
Thereafter Theodosius stayed in Italy until AD 391 effectively acting as sole emperor, despite reinstalling Valentinian II as western Augustus.

Being stern on matters of law and taxation, then on religious grounds, too, Theodosius became seen as a hardliner. Christian heretics were repressed with a series of new laws, at a time even actual religious discussion itself was outlawed.
Though Theodosius himself at times did not fare well himself in religious matters. In AD 390 he was excommunicated by the notorious bishop Ambrose of Mediolanum (Milan) for the massacre of people in Thessalonica who had lynched his 'Master of Soldiers'.
Only after Theodosius had done penance was he allowed back into the church.
The excommunication was a truly historic event, as it showed the sheer power the church had gained by then. For now the authority of the bishops was such that they could even enforce their will on the emperor. Had the emperor been determined in his religious policy right from the beginning, then what followed was a enforced Christianization of the empire. In AD 391 pagan temples were closed and all of their worships were forbidden by threat of harsh punishment.

As Theodosius returned to Constantinople he left behind his 'Master of Soldiers' to assist Valentinian II in his rule of the west. But his faith in Arbogast proved a dire misjudgement of character. For the overbearing Arbogast soon saw to it that Valentinian II was killed and created his own puppet emperor in Flavius Eugenius, who was a minister at the western court.

In AD 393 Theodosius promoted his second son, Honorius, to be the third Augustus in the east.

Thereafter, once again, Theodosius needed to embark on a campaign to remove a usurper in the west (AD 394).
On the river Frigidus he defeated Arbogast in AD 394 and thereafter had Eugenius executed.

Theodosius had in effect involuntarily re-united the two halves of the empire, though it was to be for a brief spell only. For already in January AD 395 Theodosius died at Mediolanum (Milan).

100 -2 W Theodosian dynasty

The Theodosian dynasty was a Roman family that rose to eminence in the waning days of the Roman Empire.

Theodosian dynasty
Chronology
Theodosius I as Emperor of the East		379–392
Theodosius I as sole emperor		392–395
-with Arcadius as junior Augustus of the East		383–395
Honorius as Emperor of the West		395–423
Arcadius as Emperor of the East		395–408
Theodosius II as Emperor of the East		408–450
Marcian as Emperor of the East

100-1 W Flavius Honorius (AD 383- AD 423)

http://www.roman-empire.net/collapse/honorius.html

Flavius Honorius
(AD 383- AD 423)

Honorius was the second son of Theodosius the Great and Aelia Flavia Flaccilla and was born in AD 383.
In AD 393 he was raised to be co-Augustus at Constantinople.

At Theodosius' death in AD 395, Honorius assumed the role of emperor of the west, with his brother Arcadius becoming emperor of the east.
This division of the empire into eastern and western parts was the decisive one, which sent the two on separate ways. Had the empire effectively been split by Valentinian, it had still functioned as a unit. One of the two emperors had always enjoyed seniority over the other. However, the accession of Arcadius and Honorius is widely seen as the division of the Roman empire into two completely separate parts.
Arcadius is therefore often quoted as the first 'Byzantine' ruler.

At his accession Honorius was only twelve years old and Theodosius had appointed a guardian to watch over matters of state for him, - the 'Master of Soldiers' Flavius Stilicho.
Stilicho was half Vandal, half Roman, and married to the emperor's cousin Serena. The daughter of this couple, Maria, was even married to the young Honorius in AD 395.
Theodosius had chosen well in Stilicho, for he was a man of considerable ability.

Though Stilicho's regency was marred by a bad relationship with Constantinople which eventually degenerated into open hostility.
For one, Stilicho made claim that Theodosius had granted him guardianship over both emperors. A statement which may well have been true.
But the power behind the throne in Constantinople was the praetorian prefect Flavius Rufinus who had no intention on surrendering his power to the Vandal Stilicho.
Furthermore, Stilicho chose to attempt to add the Balkan territories of praefecture of Illyricum to the western empire and so at least enlarge western power.

Blatantly pursuing this goal he marched his troops into Greece at the outbreak of the Visigoth rebellion against Arcadius under the pretext of seeking to help the eastern empire.
But when ordered out of the eastern territories by Rufinus in Constantinople, Stilicho backed down and withdrew, leaving behind a few legions under the command of his Gothic general Gainas, which were to to be restored to the east.
As they had marched to Constantinople, they stabbed Rufinus to death as he came to welcome them. Clearly this assassination was the work of Stilicho and it did irreparable damage to the relationship between the eastern and the western empire.

But with the Visigoths still rampaging through the Balkans and Greece, Stilicho was in AD 397 formally asked by Constantinople, now governed by the eunuch Eutropius, to come and aid them against the barbarians.
As Stilicho moved into Greece, but Alaric and his Visigoths got away. Constantinople, forced to buy Alaric off by making him 'Master of Soldiers' in the Balkans, responded furiously by pronouncing Stilicho a public enemy. It had since been the cause of much speculation if Stilicho indeed did let his fellow German Alaric get away, or if indeed Alaric simply outwitted his foe.

In the very same year, AD 397, an uprising in Africa took place, led by the military commander called Gildo.
Gildo revolted against the western empire, of which his territory was a part and declared for Arcadius instead.
This though meant that the valuable African grain supply to Rome fell into the hands of the east.
Stilicho of course suspected the doings of Eutropius in this, though he did not follow the manyfold advice of starting an open war with the east. Instead he engaged in systematic diplomatic intrigue which eventually, in AD 399, saw Eutropius discredited, thrown from office and banished into exile.
Meanwhile Stilicho crushed the rebellion of Gildo and returned Africa to the western empire.

The hostilities of the Visigoths in the Balkans eventually were deflected from Constantinople toward the west by Eudoxia, Arcadius' wife and effective regent of the east.
In AD 403 Italy was terrified by an invasion of the Visigoths, smashing their way into the very homeland of the empire. But Stilicho, gathering troops from the Rhine, Britain, and from wherever else he could, managed to halt their advance and force them back out of Italy.

Meanwhile Honorius decided to move his residence from Mediolanum (Milan) to the greater safety of Ravenna in AD 404.

And Italy was indeed far from safe. In AD 405 the Ostrogoths, who had in previous years been gradually forcing their way across the Middle Danube, now under the leadership of Radagaisus flooded over the Alps into Italy.
But once again Stilicho saved the day, by decisively defeating them at Faesulae (Fiesole).

Stilicho now made plans to attack the eastern empire. But he was forced to abandon them as in AD 406 huge numbers of Vandals, Suevi (Sueves), Alemanni, Alans and Burgundians crossed the frozen Rhine.
Moguntiacum (Mainz) and Treviri (Trier) fell to the invaders who then spread out into Gaul in a wave of utter destruction.

As Stilicho struggled to stem the tide, the troops of Britain mutinied in AD 406, seeing a series of men pronounced emperor and killed until eventually Constantine III achieved rule over the island. Parts of Gaul and Spain soon joined him.

In such desperate times, Stilicho saw no other means to save the empire as to buy off Alaric and his Visigoths. The price demanded was four thousand pounds of gold. The senate was unwilling to yield such a obscene amount of money, but Stilicho forced them to comply.
But the pressure brought to bear on the senate should cost Stilicho dear. The senators resented his methods and conspired to rid themselves of him. Soon after Stilicho was accused of plotting with Alaric to depose Honorius and instead make his own son Eucherius emperor of the west.
The troops at Ticinum (Pavia) were persuaded to stage a mutiny against their leader and in AD 408 Stilicho surrendered at Ravenna to the emperor and was executed.

The effect of Stilicho's downfall was disastrous. Stilicho's many German soldiers thereafter all went over to Alaric in order to avoid persecution by the Romans.

Alaric himself, no longer hoping for the bribes to keep the peace he'd received from Stilicho, now marched on Italy. Rome was only rescued by payment of another vast payment by a reluctant Honorius.

For a short period Alaric and Honorius, strangely co-existed in Italy. Occupying Portus Augusti, Alaric in AD 409 even set up a puppet emperor of his own, the prefect Priscus Attalus, who was confirmed by the Roman senate, terrified at having the barbarians so close to their capital.
But Attalus didn't last for long, soon being deposed again in AD 410 by Alaric.
Then, in AD 410, Alaric's camp was attacked by Sarus, another Visigoth leader. Did Alaric know Sarus as an enemy of his, he believed this attack to have been done on Honorius' behalf.
Alaric broke off all negotiations with Honorius and marched on Rome. Agents within the city opened the gates and on 24 August AD 410 the Visigoths fell upon Rome and sacked the ancient city for three days.

Thereafter Alaric, taking with him the emperor's twenty year-old half-sister Aelia Galla Placidia, moved on into the south of Italy. Apparently he had plans to embark and conquer Africa. But before any of this plan could be put into action, Alaric died at Consentia (AD 410).

In AD 411 the able commander Constantius (who was to become Constantius III in AD 421) became Honorius' leading military commander, in effect filling the vacancy left by Stilicho.

While the Visigoths, now led by Alaric's brother-in-law Athaulf, was still lingering in Italy, the empire of the break away emperor Constantine III was collapsing. It extended from Britain to northern Spain. It broke down, partly owing to the revolt of one of his officers in Spain, Gerontius, and partly because of the military talent of Constantius. Gerontius was besieging Constantine III at Arelate (Arles), when Constantius intervened decisively.
Gerontius retreated to Spain, where he was murdered, Constantius captured Arelate and with it Constantine III, who was executed.

Returning to Italy, Constantius effectively drove the Visigoths out into Gaul in AD 412.

Meanwhile though a new usurper, Jovinus, was proclaimed emperor in Gaul.
Yet another complication arose when in early AD 413 Heraclianus, Count of Africa, proclaimed himself emperor, too. Worse still, Heraclianus, having already amassed a great fleet, sailed for Italy.
Though Heraclian's rebellion proved an utter fiasco. He was captured and executed in midsummer. But meanwhile it had not been possible for Constantius and Honorius to take direct action in Gaul. Instead they had had to bargain with Athaulf, who then crushed Jovinus. Also the Burgundians, who were the allies of Jovinus, proved too powerful to deal with. And so they were granted the right to form their own kingdom within the empire ad henceforth were considered federates (foederati) who would act as allies to the emperor.

All along Aelia Galla Placidia, Honorius' half-sister had remained in the hands of the Visigoths ever since the sack of Rome.
However, the princess had in Constantius a devoted admirer, who wanted her back. Naturally emperor Honorius also understood it a stain on his honour that his sister should be a hostage of the barbarians.
It was part of the bargain with Athaulf that Galla Placidia should be returned. But the Roman part of the bargain, the supply of corn to Athaulf's troops, had been come to nothing due to the rebellion of Heraclian. Consequently Athaulf, instead of returning the princess, married her himself in AD 414 at Narbo (Narbonne), apparently with her own willing consent, - but without that of her brother.

The marriage failed to draw Athaulf any closer to the imperial court, in fact he set up Priscus Attalus as his puppet emperor of the west in Gaul.
This was a step to far for Constantius who now marched into Gaul and forced Athaulf to withdraw into Spain. Meanwhile Priscus Attalus was captured and taken back to Rome.
Once in Spain and left to his own devices Athaulf set out to conquer Spain. But there he was murdered in AD 415, and his successor Wallia struck a bargain with Rome.
Wallia agreed to hand Galla Placidia back to the Romans (where she reluctantly accepted the hand of Constantius) and to make war with the other barbarians in Spain.
Faced by the dual threat of Romans and Visigoths, the other barbarians in Spain (Vandals, Alans and Sueves) hastened to seek peace with the empire, which they obtained.
In exchange the Visigoths were allowed to return to Gaul, setting up their capital in Tolosa (Toulouse). The agreement between Wallia and Honorius was similar to the treaty made by Theodosius with the Visigoths in the Balkans almost thirty years earlier (AD 382), or with the Burgundians more recently in the west.
It defined the Visigoths as federates within the empire. They enjoyed self-rule over their territory in Aquitania, though they needed to provide troops to the empire.

Having rescued the western empire from utter destruction, Constantius was rewarded by being made co-Augustus in AD 421 and his wife Galla Placidia was invested as Augusta.
Though the eastern emperor, Theodosius II, refused to accept either the elevation of Constantius III or of Placidia, which led to threats of war by Constantius III and a renewed deterioration of relations between east and west.
But after a reign of only seven months Constantius III died.

After his death, Honorius, who had always been very affectionate toward his (half-) sister began making advances towards his Galla Placidia, caressing her and embracing her in public. Not merely did this cause public outrage but it alienated her from him and she fled to Constantinople in AD 423, taking the two sons of Constantius III with her.

100 EW Valentinian dynasty

The Valentinian Dynasty or Valentinianic Dynasty,^[1][2][3] consisting of four emperors, ruled the Western Roman Empire from 364 to 392 and the Eastern Roman Empire from 364 to 378.

• Western emperors:
  • Valentinian I (364–375)
  • his sons Gratian (375–383) and Valentinian II (375–392)
• Eastern emperor(s):
  • Valentinian I's brother Valens (364–378)
  • Valentinian's daughter's husband Theodosius I

The dynasty was related to the Theodosian dynasty by the marriage ofTheodosius I of the East to Valentinian I's daughter. From this marriage cameGalla Placidia,^[4] whose son Valentinian III became the western emperor (425–455), the last ruler descended from either dynasty. His descendants continued to be a part of the Roman nobility in Constantinople until the end of the 6th century.

Valentinian dynasty
Chronology
Valentinian I as Emperor of the West		364–375
-with Valens as Emperor of the East		364–375
-with Gratian as junior Augustus of West		375–378
Gratian as Emperor of the West		375–383
-with Valentinian II as junior Augustus of West		375–378
-with Valens as Emperor of the East		375–378
Gratian as sole emperor		378–379
-with Valentinian II as junior Augustus		375–379
Gratian as Emperor of the West		379–383
-with Theodosius I as emperor of the East		379–383
-with Valentinian II as junior Augustus		375–383
Interlude:Magnus MaximusUsurper		383–388
Valentinian II in competition with Magnus Maximus in the west		383–388
-with Theodosius I as emperor of the East		375–388
Valentinian II as Emperor of the West		388–392
-with Theodosius I as emperor of the East		388–392
Western Empire
Interlude:HonoriusTheodosian dynasty		393–423
Interlude:Joannes Usurper		423–425
Valentinian III as Emperor of the West		425–455

90 E -6 Tetrarchy Constantine the Great christianity turning point

http://www.antiochian.org/constantine-great-roman-emperor-christian-saint-historys-turning-point

Constantine The Great: Roman Emperor, Christian Saint, History's Turning Point

by Robert Arakaki

"Tell me the history of Christianity and I can tell you your theology." This is especially true with a controversial figure like Constantine. Where Roman Catholics present him as laying the foundation for the Papacy, Protestants see him as the one responsible for leading the early Church away from the simplicity of the pure gospel and turning it into an institutional Church. However, blaming Constantine for the fall of the Church is a double-edged sword that cuts in both directions. If Protestants accuse Constantine of tampering with the Church, how do they know that Constantine did not tamper with the Bible? The problem with the "fall of the Church" argument is that it opens the possibility of a radical discontinuity between present-day Christianity and the early Church.

This danger can be seen in one of today's most popular bestsellers, The DaVinci Code. In the middle of the book (Chapter 55) Sir Leigh Teabing gives Sophie Neveu a brief synopsis of the "history" of Christianity. In it he makes the following points about Constantine:

• Constantine was a lifelong pagan who was baptized against his will on his deathbed.
• Constantine made Christianity the official Roman religion solely for political gain.
• Christianity is a hybrid religion, the result of Constantine's fusing the pagan cult of Sol Invictus with Christianity.
• This blending can be seen in Constantine's changing the Christian day of worship from Saturday to Sunday.
• Under Constantine's influence, the Council of Nicea, by a small majority, turned a mortal prophet into the divine Son of God.
• Constantine ordered the making of the Bible that would reinforce the Council's decision to make Jesus the divine Son of God, and at the same time ordered the destruction of opposing documents.

Personally, I thought the book was a lot of fun to read, but as church history it was laughable. This is not a criticism of the author, as his bestseller is a work of fiction. The problem comes when people confuse fiction and nonfiction.

It is imperative that Christians, especially Orthodox Christians, have a firm grasp of their faith and of church history. Faith and history go together. We cannot separate church history from what we believe. The Orthodox understanding of truth is grounded in the Incarnation, the Son of God taking on human nature. Because the Son of God entered into human history, truth consists of more than a set of logically consistent concepts. Our faith is grounded in the historical figure Jesus of Nazareth, who asserted: I am the Truth. When Orthodoxy claims that the Christian Faith is the true faith, it is asserting that it is a real faith, based on historical events that actually happened. Because Christianity is grounded in reality, our salvation in Christ is a real salvation that has an impact on both the spiritual and physical realities.

Constantine the Great

Constantine was born at Naissus on February 27, 272 or 273, to Flavius Constantius and his wife Helena. Flavius Constantius was an army officer, and in 289 he divorced Constantine's mother to marry Theodora, the daughter of his commanding officer. Constantine embarked on his own military career, which took him all over the Roman Empire, from Palestine and Asia Minor to Britain, Spain, and Gaul. While crossing the Alps with his army, Constantine had a vision (or dream) of a cross of light shining in front of the sun and the words: In this sign conquer. Shortly after that vision, Constantine defeated his rival, Maxentius, captured Rome, and was acclaimed the next emperor.

History often turns upon certain pivotal events or individuals. Early Christianity faced two significant perils: one external—violent persecution by the Roman government, and one internal—the Arian heresy, which denied Christ's divinity. In a providential twist of events, God raised up an emperor who would play a key role in confronting each of these perils, becoming one of Christianity's greatest defenders. Constantine's rule precipitated an avalanche of events that radically altered the course of the history of Christianity.

External Danger—Persecution

Prior to Constantine's becoming emperor, the early Church was going through one of the fiercest and bloodiest of the persecutions by the Roman government, the Diocletian persecution. During this wave of persecution thousands of Christians lost their lives, churches were destroyed, and scriptures were burned. Then in 313, the situation reversed itself. Constantine (with his co-emperor Licinus) issued the famous Edict of Milan, declaring Christianity to be a legal religion. Christianity was not yet the official religion of the Empire—this would not happen until 380 under Emperor Theodosius. And Constantine's edict of toleration was not the first—Galerius had issued a similar edict in 311. But it marked a major turning point for the Roman government. With the Edict of Milan, the three-centuries-long era of persecution came to an end.

Contrary to popular belief, Constantine did not rescue Christianity from extinction. Even if he had not adopted the Christian cause, the majority of the Roman population was well on its way to becoming Christian. What Constantine did do was hasten the process of evangelizing the Roman Empire. Constantine's conversion marked the climax of a centuries-long process of evangelization that began in an obscure corner of the Roman Empire. For the first time, the entire structure of Roman civilization, from the emperor down to the lowliest slave, shared the Christian faith.

Internal Danger—Heresy

In the early fourth century, a theological controversy broke out that threatened to derail the Christian faith. Arius taught that the Son of God had a beginning and was a created being. The controversy threatened deeply to divide the Christian Church, and in so doing to imperil the unity of the Roman Empire. Concerned for the unity of the empire, Constantine wrote letters to Bishop Alexander and to Arius, urging them to make up their differences and forgive each other. When that failed, he convened an ecumenical council of the entire Church. Previously there had been regional and local synods, but this was the first worldwide gathering of bishops. Constantine aided this historic gathering by covering the travel expenses of bishops coming from the far-flung corners of the empire.

In order to repudiate the Arian heresy, the bishops inserted the word homoousios ("of the same essence") into the baptismal creed. By asserting that Christ was of the same essence as God the Father, the Council decisively affirmed the divinity of Christ. This was approved by an overwhelming majority of the Council (only three persons—including Arius—out of three hundred disagreed). Although Constantine may have suggested that homoousios be inserted into the creed, the word was not invented by him. Even Arius made use of it, albeit in his arguments against the divinity of Christ.

Although he presided over the council, it is an exaggeration to claim that Constantine controlled the direction of the Council of Nicea, as many Protestants argue. Many of the bishops present at the council were survivors of the Diocletian persecution and would have been more than willing to put their lives on the line for the gospel of Christ once more. Another weakness of the Protestant stereotype of Constantine is that it gives short shrift to the theological genius of Athanasius. Anyone who reads Athanasius' theological classic Against the Arians will see that it was Athanasius, not Constantine, who turned the tide against the Arian heresy. Also, the limitations of Constantine's ability to coerce the Church into doing his will can be seen in his earlier failure to resolve the Donatist controversy in 320. As W. H. C. Frend notes in The Rise of Christianity, "The lesson, however, had been learned. Never again did he seek to beat into submission a movement within the church."

Equal-to-the-Apostles

Constantine's legacy can be seen in Christianity's transformation from a private sect into a public church that encompassed the whole of society. He put it on an institutional footing, which enabled the Church to be the leading cultural force in the ancient world. The Christianization of Roman society can be seen as a partial fulfillment of Revelation 21:24: "The nations . . . shall walk in its [New Jerusalem] light, and the kings of the earth bring their glory and honor into it." The Church is the New Jerusalem—replacing the Jerusalem of the Old Testament—which brings spiritual enlightenment to the pagan nations throughout the Roman Empire. However, a balanced assessment of the historical evidence shows that, as much as Constantine may have contributed to the Christianization of the Roman Empire, he did not originate Holy Tradition as many Protestants believe.

Sunday as the day of worship. Although Sunday was made a public holiday, there is no evidence that it was Constantine who changed the Christians' day of worship from Saturday to Sunday. Two first-century documents—Didache 14.1 and Ignatius' Letter to the Magnesians 9.1—document the fact that Christians worshiped on a different day from the Jewish Sabbath. As emperor, Constantine transformed what was once the private practice of an illegal sect into a public holiday for all Romans.

Constantinople—the New Rome. With his decision to turn the sleepy village of Byzantinum into the Roman Empire's new capital city, Constantine laid the groundwork of what would become a major spiritual center, the Patriarchate of Constantinople. As the New Rome, Constantinople was intended to signal the Roman Empire's break with its pagan past and its embracing of Christianity. Under Constantine's orders, no pagan ceremonies were allowed in this city. While the original Rome and the Latin West entered into the Dark Ages, Constantinople thrived as a spiritual and political capital through the time of Columbus' voyage to America. Constantinople was also the springboard from which the missionary outreach to Russia would take place.

The Council of Nicea and the biblical canon. While Constantine played an important role at the First Ecumenical Council, there is no evidence that he had anything to do with deciding which books would go into the Bible. The Muratorian Canon (from the year 200) provides a list of New Testament documents that closely resembles the list found in today's Bible. Similar lists can be found in the writings of Origen (250) and Eusebius of Caesarea (300). It is true that Constantine ordered the burning of books by Arius, the anti-Christian philosopher Porphyry, the Novatians, the Marcionites, and others. But the fact remains that by the time Constantine became emperor, much of today's biblical canon was already in place.

Constantine a Saint?

Constantine died in 337. Shortly before his death, he was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia. Following his baptism, Constantine refused to wear the imperial purple and died wearing the white baptismal robe. He was buried in the Church of the Holy Apostles just days after he had dedicated it. The day of his death—May 21—is commemorated in the Orthodox Church as a major feast day.

Skepticism about the sincerity of Constantine's Christianity stems from a number of factors. Constantine did not openly repudiate the pagan gods, but tolerated pagan belief even as he began favoring the Christians. Another source lies in his execution of his son, Crispus, and his wife, Fausta, in 326, a year after the Council of Nicea. A third factor was Constantine's delaying of his baptism until just a few days before his death.

On closer examination, however, the basis for this skeptical attitude becomes problematic. Constantine's participation in the pagan rites most likely stemmed from his obligations as military and political leader. Regarding his execution of his son and wife, it is not clear what the reasons were. Unless the reasons for this drastic action are known, it is not fair to condemn Constantine. Also, modern evangelicalism may frown on deathbed conversions, but in the early Church such delaying of one’s baptism was not uncommon.

Constantine's conversion follows more closely the Orthodox understanding of salvation than the Protestant understanding. Where Protestants, especially evangelicals, tend to see salvation in terms of a one-time conversion experience, Orthodoxy sees salvation as a mystery and as a process that unfolds over time. While Constantine's personal faith may be a matter of debate, his historical contributions to the Church under his reign are undeniable. Frend writes, "The 'Age of the Fathers' would have been impossible without Constantine's conversion. The church's councils under the emperor's guidance became assemblies where the new, binding relationship with the Christian God, on which the safety of the empire depended, was established."

The Orthodox Church sees Constantine as the emperor who assisted the early Church in evangelizing the Roman Empire. For this reason it honors him as Saint Constantine Equal-to-the-Apostles.

Constantine and the Church

For Orthodoxy, Constantine represents an important link to the past. The persecuted underground Church and the official state Church are the same Church. Constantine played a key role in the historic transition from the former to the latter. For Orthodox Christianity, there is no "fall of the Church." The Orthodox Church believes that it stands in unbroken continuity with the Church of the first century.

There is a popular belief among evangelicals that the true Church was the underground Church, which refused to compromise with the worldly state Church, and that this true Church remained in hiding over the following centuries, leaving few records of its existence until it was rediscovered by the Protestants in the sixteenth century. The main problem with this belief is not only the absence of supporting evidence, but the presence of contrary evidence. Eusebius, in Books IV and V of his History of the Church, provides a chronological listing of bishops that goes back to the original apostles. Present-day Orthodox bishops and patriarchs are able to trace their spiritual and historical lineage back to the original apostles, something that Protestants cannot do.

Symphonia—The Harmony of Faith and Politics

Constantine's support for the early Church laid the foundation for the doctrine of symphonia—the ideal of political and religious leaders working in harmony to realize God's will here on earth. This ideal is rooted in the Lord's Prayer: "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." Symphonia avoids two extremes: the separation of Church from State on the one hand, and the fusion of Church and State on the other. Despite his active participation in the Ecumenical Council, Constantine did not view himself as one of the bishops, but rather as "bishop of those outside." This ideal found concrete expression in the Byzantine Empire, which lasted for a thousand years. Under Constantine's rule began the transformation of Roman culture. Execution by crucifixion ceased, gladiatorial battles as punishment ended.

Symphonia has a number of important implications for Orthodox Christians. One is that the Church is called to pray for those in power, even if they are not Christians. For Orthodoxy, symphonia is the ideal situation, but not the only one. Christianity is not tied to any one particular political structure. Another implication is that there is no separation between the physical and the spiritual (belief in dualism is an early heresy). Orthodoxy is both a personal and a public faith. The Orthodox Church encourages good citizenship, public service along with philanthropy. Its preference for lay involvement in politics helps avoid the dangers of theocratic rule. It is expected that Orthodox Christians will bring the values of the Church into the political and social realms.

Venerating a Great Saint Today

The Orthodox Church today honors the memory of Constantine in several ways. Many Orthodox parishes are named after him. I attend Saints Constantine and Helen Greek Orthodox Cathedral of the Pacific. On Sunday mornings, soon after I enter the church, I see the icon of Christ sitting on the throne. I also see the icon of Constantine and his mother, Helen. Inside the church up in front I see Constantine and Helen on the icon screen. They are now part of the great cloud of witnesses cheering us on to finish the spiritual race (Hebrews 12). During the Sunday Liturgy, just before the scripture readings, the following troparion (hymn) is sung: